WARRIOR ZEN
THRUST WITHOUT THRUSTING!
by
George Alexander
Actually, certain Zen
schools taught many samurai. In fact, the Zen of the samurai developed
into a type of Zen known as Warrior Zen and was different than other
forms of Zen. Warrior Zen was developed by a priest named Eisai in
Kamakura, Japan in 1215 and the Chinese Zen master Daikaku.It used
koans from the various sutras i.e., Buddhist scriptures. Warrior Zen
required an incredible spirit by the teacher as well as the student. In
Warrior Zen, sometimes the master would set out an unsheathed blade
during the interview session. It was also characterized by a certain
sense of urgency to solve the koans. Since the warrior it was
designed for might die in battle the very next day. As a consequence,
the warrior or samurai had no attachments to the future or worldly
ambitions which gave him an advantage in the practice of Zen.Warrior Zen
was replaced by a more intellectual form of Zen when the time of peace
came to Japan. Warrior Zen all but died out and was forgotten by the
beginning of the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868). Although Yamaoka Tesshu
(1836-1888), sometimes called Japan’s last great swordsman, was known to
have secured a copy of a book called Shonankattoroku which
contained one hundred koans for warriors and an explaination of their
history and the history of Kamakura Zen (Warrior Zen). He received this
text from Preist Shojo of Ryutaku Temple in Izu. However, this copy has
been lost.
Another record book of
koan entitled Bukedoshinshu (Records of Warriors Aspiring
to the Way) lists three hundred koan specifically designed for
samurai. A samurai would often compose a poem or agyo to answer
the koan in an interview with the master. After a samurai had
solved all the riddles and mastered Zen, he was given a Zen name and
full approval (inka) by his master. Additional Warrior Zen
koan which are intended to be answered in succession by a samurai
are as follows: “What is the meaning of dashing straight ahead?”
“Leaving your dashing straight ahead, what is the meaning of the
general’s dashing straight ahead?” Leaving the general’s dashing
straight ahead, what is the dashing straight ahead of all the Buddhas
and beings in the three worlds? Leaving the dashing straight ahead of
all the Buddhas and beings, what is the dashing straight ahead of heaven
and earth and the ten thousand phenomena? These are no doubt thought
provoking. Another one which appears simplistic at first is this one.
“How is it to wield a spear with empty hands?”
Zen considers an
intuitive nature to be higher that an intellectual nature. Therefore,
even the “intellectually challenged” can climb up the path toward
enlightenment! This is because the intellect engages in reasoning and
logic. Like Aristotle (384-322 BC), who was a great
thinker. He was the student of Plato and the founder of the deductive
science of logic. The scholar thinks, he ponders, he analyzes. However,
it is not the intellect of the conscious thinking mind that produces a
“spontaneous response” to immediate experience but a sudden intuitive
grasp by the unconscious mind. Therefore, by constantly producing a
“spontaneous response” to immediate experience, intuition or intuitive
grasp is developed by the Zen practitioner. This is not unlike what
happens in the martial arts when one must spontaneously respond to an
opponent’s attack without thinking. [If you have to think about what
technique you are going to use, it’s to late!] In the martial arts it
important to combine two principles simultaneously. The first is ri
or inspiration and the second is ji, waza or technique. The idea
is not to think and then execute a technique but rather let inspiration
and techniques occur spontaneously. “Techniques will occur in the
absence of conscious thought.” - The Bubishi However, this presupposes
one has trained sufficiently in techniques otherwise his movements will
be stiff and ki stagnated. Interestingly, the same concept is
inherent in the training of other arts such as calligraphy or painting.
“Draw bamboos for ten years; become a bamboo; then forget all about
bamboo when you draw!” The artist [or the martial artist] is now in
possession of an infallible technique and is totally possessed by the
“inspiration of the moment”.
To truly live Zen one
must value experience and intuition higher than intellect. Therefore,
mere intellectual analysis, intense theoretical discussion, repartee
with words and their inherent limitations cannot fully express what Zen
is or is not. Therefore, I have no more to say!
The two philosophies of
Taoism and Buddhism have both contributed to modern martial arts
philosophies and ethical systems. In Japan proper, Zen has
perhaps had the most profound influence, particularly in the
schools of swordsmanship. During the Feudal Era in Japan,
Zen was a very popular belief, particularly with the Samurai
class.
ZEN AND THE IDEALS OF
SWORDSMANSHIP
Since ancient times in
Japan’s turbulent history, the warrior courts of Emperor’s from the
Kamakura and Muromachi periods (1185-1573), encouraged the practice of
zen among the samurai class. This is because the austere philosophy of
Zen goes hand in hand with the arts of war. Hence, the term Warrior Zen.
In 1191, Zen Buddhism was introduced directly from China. At this
same time, Zen priests imported tea from China and it was used as a
stimulant to Zen meditation. The Japanese ritual tea ceremony known as
Cha-no-yu was created as this time as well.
The samurai class
embraced the religious philosophy of Zen because of its tenets of
physical and mental discipline which coincided with the samurai’s stoic
existence. Zen’s thinking is simplistic and its quest is the true nature
of things. Warrior Zen espouses such phrases as “One must overcome fear
by embracing death and transcending it.” “The mind turns in accordance
with the ten thousand things; The pivot on which it turns is verily hard
to know.” “Everything must come full circle.The beginner and the master
have the same techniques.”
Zen philosophy points to
the thinking that each single element in the universe is related to the
ultimate reason of all things. In other words, all things are
interrelated. The single blade of grass contains the essence of the
universe as much as the universe contains the existence of the single
blade of grass. By way of example, “a Zen monk experienced enlightenment
(satori) when for a moment he grasped the universe with his hands
when the moon was reflected in the water that he took from the mountain
spring.” Therefore, according to Zen, enlightenment could be defined as
the moment when finiteness of thought turns infinity into comprehension
i.e., one becomes one with the universe and the existence of self is
extinct.
During the seventeenth
century, the samurai had more leisure time since they were no longer
involved in armed conflicts or battlefield engagements. Therefore, their
raison d’ etre became the development of more intricate and
ceremonial styles. Additionally, the concept of Zen and
spirituality became an integral part of the mastery of swordsmanship
during this period. The main pursuit of the samurai during the Tokugawa
era became what was called Buntu Itchi, literally “Pen and sword
in accord.” Young samurai were educated by engaging in the practice of
swordsmanship and writing the Chinese classics. This is what Musashi was
referring to in the Go Rin Sho as “It is said the warrior’s is the
twofold way of pen and sword”. This is further evidenced by Yagyu
Munenori’s Heiho Kaden Sho (Book of Swordsmanship) and the Zen
monk Takuan’s Fudochi Shinmyo Roku (Divine Record of Immovable
Wisdom), a treatise on Zen and swordsmanship. Yagyu Munenori with the
help of the priest Takuan (1573-1645) combined many aspects of zen
with swordsmanship. The Heiho Kaden Sho explains how the
sword is an instrument of heaven. If for example an evil man oppresses
ten thousand people and he is killed, the sword will give new life to
i.e., free from oppression, ten thousand people. It further explains
that there is righteousness in using the fighting arts so that heaven is
victorious.
An important tactic in
Yagyu Shinkage Ryu was to perceive the opponent’s movements before he
made them. The Heiho Kaden Sho (Book of Swordsmansip), written by
Munenori, explains how an opponent will betray his intentions by
preceding an attack with small movements of his shoulders or arms.
Additionally, Takuan’s writings communicate the idea that an enlightened
mind can be attained through the serious study of swordsmanship.
This “way”, i.e. michi or do, culminates with the phrase
ken zen itchi (swordsmanship and zen are one).
Musashi’s life reflected
a mastery of Zen. He lived pursuing a single purpose, to find
enlightenment through the way of the sword. He put all of his being into
his training with the sword. He neglected his appearance and worldly
possessions. Musashi exclaimed “The way of the warrior is the resolute
acceptance of death”. “Enact strategy broadly, correctly and openly.
Then you will come to think of things in a wide sense and taking the
void as the way, you will see the way as the void.”
Within the philosophy of
Japanese swordsmanship is the concept of the resolute acceptance of
death. This is embodied in the samurai’s code of bushido i.e.,
the way of the warrior. The way a samurai kept his mind in accordance
with the highest principle of bushido was to keep his spirit
accustomed to and resolved on his own death. In this way, by considering
himself already dead, he could perform his duties without fear of
failure.
BUSHIDO
Sometimes bushido
is translated as knightly ways. These knightly ways were the code of
conduct; a set of moral principles, adhered to by the samurai class.
bushido, similar in some ways to the code of chivalry of European
knights, was basically an unwritten set of precepts. There is no
particular text to serve as a biblical reference so to speak. The
precepts were largely transmitted by word of mouth in the form of maxims
in the educational process of a samurai and as anecdotes recorded by
famous samurai warriors.
Three significant
virtues imbued in bushido were honor, loyalty and courage.
Factors which seemed to embellish all the individual virtues of
bushido were the samurai’s stoic nature, his calm indifference to
his environment, especially in battle, and his seriousness of purpose.
One’s honor was a trait highly esteemed and care was taken to safeguard
one’s reputation and dignity. So much care in fact that this
defensiveness of one’s honor had to be counterbalanced by stressing the
merits of patience. The counter effect was to prevent swords from being
drawn at the slightest friction in dealing with others.
Loyalty to one’s master
or daimyo was a characteristic which was considered one of the
supreme attributes of a samurai. As evidence of this Japan’s history
recounts how the lines of samurai served the lines of feudal lords for
generations. Conversely, Ronin or roving samurai whose services
were not retained by a liege lord were despised as renegades. Loyalty
was epitomized by a certain ideology in which life or the forfeiture of
it was regarded as a means by which to serve the master. This blind
obedience or bizarre devotion is characterized throughout Japan’s
literature. Perhaps the most famous account of this is the story or the
47 Ronin. Where 47 of a lord’s retainers disemboweled themselves in
order to follow their deceased master.
Courage, needless to
say, is a prerequisite for any combatant or professional warrior. But as
far as bushido was concerned, courage was only recognized as a
virtue if it was “exercised in the cause of righteousness.” In
bushido the precepts implied “death for a cause unworthy of dying
for was called a dogs death”. Hence, to know when to die and to know
when to live is the mark of true courage. Accompanying this ideal was
the discipline of composure in the face of death.
Courage became so highly
refined as a virtue of the samurai it was expounded upon in many
different anecdotes. It seems as though a certain amount of finesse was
required to exercise courage properly. The samurai prided himself on the
possession of brute strength. However, battles did not involve shear
force alone. There is a certain sportive element in a courageous nature.
Things which are serious to ordinary people, may be but play to the
valiant. Therefore, sometimes in old warfare it was not uncommon for the
parties to a conflict to exchange repartee or to begin a rhetorical
contest. Combat was not solely a matter of brute force, it was as well,
an intellectual engagement.
Embodied in the precept
of courage was a lack of the fear of death or as mentioned before
composure in the face of death.A seventeenth century document known as
the Hagakure which means hidden under the leaves shows the
samurai’s willingness to risk his life at any moment. Hagakure ,
authored by Yamamoto Tsunetomo, states that the “spirit of bushido
is realized when one imagines himself to be dying, this he can do every
morning and every evening. One should expect death daily, so, when the
time comes, he can die in peace”. Yamamoto continues with “Tranquilize
your mind every morning and imagine the moment when you may be torn and
mangled by arrows, guns, lances and swords, thrown into a fire, dying of
disease: die every morning in your mind, and then you will not fear
death.” .
As evidenced by the
Hagakure, the practice of keeping the idea of death consciously present
on a daily basis was the means by which the samurai reinforced himself
to face death repeatedly. Seemingly, this constant preparedness would
avert fear and terror in a sudden life and death struggle.
Bushido,
the way of the warrior, spawned by militarism as early as the tenth
century, originally centered its goal in loyalty to the master for the
sake of military accomplishment. As the precepts developed and evolved
toward the Tokugawa period, its height, they became more ceremonialized
and a shift occurred from the original purpose toward the metaphysics of
death born out by the seventeenth century Hagakure.
Seppuku
or disembowelment was a form of Japanese ritual suicide. It became the
focal point of the ferociousness of will which was necessary for the
mastery of bushido. It came to be called “The Flower of Bushido”,
primarily because of the samurai’s preoccupation with the preparation
for his demise. Seppuku was a traditional, legal and ceremonial
institution. Its purpose was to allow the warrior to absolve himself
from any dishonor, escape disgrace or prove sincerity. It was often
awarded to a perpetrator of an offense as a form of honorable
punishment. Since it required an iron composure it suited the stoic
nature of the samurai. Incidentally, seppuku was a rarely used
method of atonement in Okinawa.
The sword became the
badge of the warrior and it symbolized the power and the ideals of
bushido. This symbolism of the philosophy of bushido
manifested in the sword is exemplified by the following: “What he
carries in his belt is a symbol of what he carries in his mind, loyalty
and honor.”
To the samurai the sword
was not regarded as an instrument of death but rather as an instrument
of spiritual self discipline. I might be noted that the sword as well as
having an intrinsic spiritual value, embracing the code of
bushido, also carried an extraordinarily large monetary value. The
better blades actually brought as much as a years allowance for 100,000
commoners (chonin). The blades themselves were so finely made
that they naturally became an object of adoration on the physical plane
as well as the spiritual. The following passage relates the beauty and
awe inspiring qualities of the blade.
“Its cold blade, collecting on its surface the moment it is
drawn the vapor of the atmosphere; its immaculate texture,
flashing light of bluish hue; its matchless edge upon which
histories and possibilities hang; the curve of its back, uniting
exquisite grace with utmost strength; all these thrill us with
mixed feelings of power and beauty of awe and terror.”
The code of bushido
gave no support to the wanton use of the sword. In fact, it vehemently
stressed its proper use and discouraged its misuse. The possession of
the weapon imparted a grave responsibility. Its power provided a great
temptation and allowed it to be easily misused. Therefore, with regard
to this aspect, bushido was necessary in order to establish a
mode of conduct and an ethical framework for the samurai.
Beginning in the tenth
century and continuing into the twelfth century, Japan saw the growth of
large military clans. In 1156, a military or samurai class began
to emerge in the provinces. These clans were constantly in
skirmishes with one another until finally, a long and bitter struggle
ensued between the Minamoto (Genji) and Tiara (Heiki) clans.The struggle
for power and control of the imperial court pitted the Taira and
Minamoto clans against one another. After five years of war, which ended
in 1185, political power passed from the imperial court to the samurai
or warrior class. In 1192, the emperor named Minamoto Yoritomo as
Japan’s first Shogun or military dictator. Ultimately, the Minamoto
prevailed and become the military rulers of Japan. It was during this
period and chivalrous setting that bushido was produced and
evolved.
By the thirteenth
century the samurai reached a status of nobility as rulers and
bushido flourished. Bushido as an ethical system became
ornamented with ceremony as it reached its zenith during the reign of
the Tokugawa Clan (1603-1868).
With the advent of the
Tokugawa reign, the government became more stable and peace lasted
almost three hundred years. Slowly, the precepts of knighthood began to
become very ceremonialized, as evidenced earlier by the Hagakure,
and the trend from military accomplishment toward a higher philosophical
plane and the metaphysics of death evolved.
The precepts of
bushido evolved as a philosophy and life style paralleled and
supported by the feudalistic form of government. After the downfall of
the Tokugawa Shogunate, the new Meiji government was installed and
abolished the old feudalistic system completely. The new government
began to absorb the culture of advanced western nations.
The strongest blow
initially dealt to the samurai and bushido came as a result of
the Meiji government issuing an edict in 1872 prohibiting the wearing of
swords in public. This ban strictly forbade the wearing or the use of
swords in public by anyone. As a result of the ban, the samurai were
left without any source of income and bushido’s practicality
began to wan in the new Japan.
Another circumstance
which jarred bushido’s foundations was the peace that was enjoyed
during the Tokugawa reign. The peace enhanced commerce and commoners
began to prosper and accumulate wealth. Swordsmanship was not a
commodity in great demand during a time of peace and eventually the
ruling samurai class could not compete with the economic power of the
merchant class. They were forced into less significant positions by
financial subservience.
The decline of
bushido was also aided by the rise of commoner s as a social class.
The way of the samurai began to come under the criticism of the
commoners in the late Tokugawa period. At this time senryu, a
type of satirical poetry came into vogue. Most senryu poetry
expressed bushido as an inhumane code.
Through senryu
the commoners directed attacks against the samurai class. Senryu
was used principally because any open resistance or criticism of the
samurai by commoners was at the very least a dangerous undertaking.
Finally, the bushido of medieval Japan was overtaken by an
increasing pace in the society of new Japan. The feudalistic system
supporting the life style of the samurai did not lend itself to
modernization. The feudal lords were not banished but were absorbed and
obscured by the fast paced Meiji government.
In a most ironic
circumstance while the bushido of medieval Japan was dying a
nationalistic Bushido was being born. A sort of bushido
madness overtook the nation between 1880 and 1945. In the old
feudalistic system loyalty to one’s lord was paramount. Cleverly, the
Meiji government in breaking down the caste system of the samurai,
shifted this loyalty to the emperor. Under the new government there was
no longer a samurai and a commoner (chonin) class but one class.
The revitalization of
bushido or the birth of the new bushido differed from the
medieval version in that the new bushido was truly nationalistic
in scope and was centered on the worship of the emperor. The new
bushido’s followers also differed in that their ranks were a cross
section of the nations society where formerly the precepts of bushido
were only taught to the nobility or samurai class. The precepts of
bushido now permeated society as a whole .
The resurgence of
bushido was in fact directed by the Meiji government and rising
nationalism. The primary implement in this was the imperial rescript to
military men issued in 1882 in which the precepts of bushido from
the past were reiterated. It read abbreviated as follows:
The military man’s first duty is to be loyal.
The military man shall be upright in his demeanor.
The military man shall highly esteem health and strength.
The military man shall esteem fidelity.
The military man shall make frugality a basic principle.
All imperial soldiers
were expected to memorize this code.
In the late 1880s a
group known as the Nippon Shugi Sha became active. Their members felt
Japan was divinely ordained to be the leader among nations. They gained
increasing power subsequent to Japan’s victories of the Sino-Japanese
War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Together with
other expansionist groups they helped form the attitudes which involved
Japan in World War II.
Japan’s thousand years
of militarism and code of bushido were eradicated with the
surrender of Japan in 1945. American occupation eliminated the last
traces of bushido. Japan had never been completely defeated and
its people where demoralized. Additionally, the most important factor of
the occupation strategy was requiring the emperor to state that his
authority was not divinely instituted. Consequently, undermining the
last pillar of nationalistic bushido; the figurehead and
recipient of loyalty. Finally, another important factor was the
constitutional renunciation of war which eliminated bushido
completely.
The setting for the
heroic deeds of the samurai, which influenced all of Japan’s martial
arts and martial philosophy, and the precepts of bushido were
engulfed by a rapidly expanding society in little more than a century.
Bushido, born out of clan rivalry and the aggression of ambitious
warlords, was destined to die with the advent of the modern age and the
renunciation of war by a people who thrived on it for a millennium. Even
though bushido has died in terms of a samurai serving his lord
with blind obedience to the point of death, certainly the legacy of
bushido and the stoicism of the samurai spirit lives on in the
modern martial arts of today.
10,000 BC
The Jomon culture of Japan begins. Small settlements are established and
a unique pottery with cord designs is indicative of this culture.
300 BC
The Yayoi culture replaces the Jomon
culture. The pottery wheel, rice cultivation and metal working
technology are imported from Korea. Various clans begin to gain power.
300 AD
By the sixth century, the Yamato clan
gains power and becomes the leading clan of Japan. The Yamato clan
becomes the founder of the imperial line which has never been broken.
552
The use of Chinese characters for
writing is adopted by Japan. Buddhism , and other cultural and
religious influence, arrives in Japan via Korea. Japanese monks
also went to China acceptable and enhanced the intergration of Buddhism
into to study Buddhism there and then returned to Japan. Buddhist
thought (not Zen) also reached Japan in the sixth century through Korea.
Buddhism was flexible so a co-existence with Shinto was easily Japanese
society.
600
Tensonshi Dynasty of the Ryukyu Kingdon
established. Early contact between China and Ryukyu (Okinawa)
occurs. Kempo (tode) develops in China. T’ang Dynasty (618-906 A D).
604
Prince Shotoku, influenced by Buddhism
and Confucianism, drafts a document calling for an ethical framework in
government and establishes a tradition of scholarly missions to
China.
607
First embassy to China established.
645
The Taika reform, with the ideal of
establishing a central government based on the Chinese model,
abolishes private land ownership. The Taiho code of 701 creates a legal
system and a system of administrative offices. The Emperor carves up
fiefs and grants plots to peasants during their lifetimes and taxes the
harvests.
710
The imperial court moves to the city of
Nara. Nara is the first urban center of Japan and the first permanent
capital. Chinese culture continues to pervade Japan. Chinese style art
and architecture flourish in this period and the construction of
Buddhist temples increases throughout the provinces of Japan. In 784, in
order to escape the increasing Buddhist political influence the imperial
court leaves Nara.
712
The Kojiki (Records of
Ancient Matters), Japan’s first written history appears. About this
same time another document known as Collection of Myriad Leaves
is written. This is the first anthology of Japan.
794
The imperial court establishes the city
of Kyoto (Heian kyo), the capital of peace and tranquillity.
858
The Fujiwara clan becomes the regents
of the Emperor and ruling power in Japan.
1,000
The Heian court sets the stage for an
era of refinement. Courtiers embrace the artistic pursuits of
calligraphy, poetry, etiquette and embellish sartorial perfection and
dress. The world’s first novel is written, Tale of the Genji
by Lady Murasaki Shibiku.
1101-1314
Local Chieftans vie for power and
control of Okinawa. Many warring factions exist and Okinawa is divided
into three kingdoms. Shunten becomes the first king of Ryukyu.
1156
A military or samurai class begins to
emerge in the provinces. The struggle for power and control
of the imperial court pits the Taira (Heiki) and Minamoto (Genji) clans
against one another. The Taira remain the most powerful family from 1160
to 1180.
1185
The Minamoto clan emerges
victorious over the Taira after five years of war. Political power
passes from the imperial court to the samurai or warrior class. In 1192
the emperor names Minamoto Yoritomo, Japan’s first Shogun or military
dictator. Yoritomo sets up his military headquarters in Kamakura.
1191
Zen Buddhism is introduced directly
from China. The samurai class embrace this religious philosophy because
of its tenets of physical and mental discipline which coincide with
samurai’s stoic existence. Zen priests import tea from China. As a
stimulant to meditation. The ritual tea ceremony known as Cha-no-yu is
created. The two main Zen schools in Japan became the Rinzai and
the Soto sects. These first appeared in Japan in the Kamakura period
(1185-1333). The first monk to found a Zen temple in japan was Eisai
(1141-1215). He brought back the Rinzai sect from China. He is also
credited with founding Warrior Zen. A type of Zen suited to the samurai
warrior. It was supported by both the Emperor and the Shogun. Warrior
Zen also was very cohesive with the samurai’s code of conduct,
bushido and easily blended with it. Another monk by the name of Dogen
(1200-1253) brought back the Soto sect from China. Chinese monks came to
Japan to teach Zen and to escape the invading mongols. (footnote: The
Japanese Art of War p.5)
There is no exact date
of the transmission of Zen from China to Japan. The zen Buddhist
scriptures mention twenty four schools and fourty six transmissions of
zen to japan. other years ?????
Kenjutsu
This is the way for men
who want to learn my strategy.
1. Do not think
dishonestly.
2. The way is in
training.
3. Become aquainted
with every art.
4. Know the way of all
professions.
5. Distinguish between
gain and loss in worldly matters.
6. Develop intuitive
judgment and understanding for everything.
7. Perceive those things
which cannot be seen.
8. Pay attention even to
trifles.
9. Do nothing which is
of no use.
More than anything to
start with you must set your heart on strategy and earnestly stick to
the way.
-Shinmen Musashi No Kami
Fujiwara No Genshin
writing in Go Rin No
Sho 2nd year of Shoho, Reigendo Cave, Kyushu Island.
Kenjutsu (also, Kenjitsu)
is the art of classical swordsmanship and refers to the technique of
using a steel blade or sharp (shinken ) sword on the
battlefield by the samurai, Japan’s classical warrior. Kenjutsu is
primarily concerned with the techniques of using an unsheathed sword and
therefore its tactics are very aggressive. However, the sword is more
than merely a weapon of war in Japanese cultural history. It is a symbol
of the imperial power of the emperor and has long been revered
throughout Japan’s turbulent history. It is one of the three sacred
objects of the imperial regalia or sanju no jingi. In fact,
the imperial regalia consists of a mirror, a jewel and a sword.
In Japan, the first
samurai swords (tachi) were introduced in the Heian Period
(794 -1191). Although, straight-bladed Chinese style swords were used
prior to this period along with bows and arrows and spears. However, as
cavalry became more widely used as tactical elements of warring armies,
the tachi replaced the Chinese style straight-bladed weapon. The
tachi was longer with a curved blade. This was to facilitate
cutting downward at an enemy while on horseback. The tachi was worn edge
down at a samurai’s side while mounted. This was during the reign of the
Fujiwara Clan who were Regents to the Emperors of Japan at that time.
The tachi sword was between four and a half feet to six feet in
length. Later, as close-quarter combat replaced cavalry methods swords
were shortened and the katana was developed. Although,
historically Amakuni (c.700 AD) is considered to be the first swordsmith
to produce a Nippon To, i.e. a distinctly Japanese sword with a
single-edged curved blade.
In the late Heian Period
two other clans, the Taira and Minamoto Clans, were warring factions in
one of Japan’s many internal power struggles. The Taira defeated the
Minamoto in 1156. In 1160, in yet another battle between the Taira
and Minamoto Clans the Taira were still left in power but in 1185 the
Minamoto finally defeated the Taira Clan.
This half century of
continual warfare gave rise to the Samurai or Bushi as a
distinct class within Japanese society. At this time the code of
Bushido or “Way of the warrior” was developed and two of Japan’s
most famous literary works were produced. One is called Genji Monogatari
(Tale of the Genji), the world’s first novel and Heike Monogatari, a
literary work which told of great heroic deeds of the Samurai. The
etymology of the word samurai is derived from sameru (to serve).
Although the term bushi (warrior) has a more elite and respectful
meaning.
Sword making around this
period began to improve. The Minamoto Clan in Western Japan had
excellent iron ore resources on its lands. Also sword makers
became exalted figures themselves attaining a status close to
priesthood.
By the eleventh century,
the Japanese sword was acknowledged to be the most superior sword made
in Asia. This was based on a balance between functionality and artistic
achievement.
Japan’s most famous
swordsmaker was Masamune (c.1326). He developed a process whereby
the edge of the sword would not chip. Masamune did not sign many
of his blades as was the custom. When asked why he did not sign his name
to the tang (nakago) of many of the masterpieces he created he
replied “What’s the need. It’s obvious who made it.” Previously the
blades of swords used in combat either chipped at the edge or broke at
the hilt. This is because they were simply made from a solid sheet of
iron that was folded, hammered and then forged. The technology developed
for sword making then evolved to what is called four-bar construction.
It consisted of welding together a bar of hard steel in the center in
order to maintain a sharp edge, two hard iron bars on the outside to
resist bending and a soft iron bar in the center for flexibility in
order to resist breaking. This composite blank which is basically
a core of flexible steel (shinganae) surrounded by a jacket of harder
steel (kawaganae), was then hammered to make the steel edge protrude.
The final step in the process is tempering. The blade was reheated, a
clay mixture applied to the edge, and then thrust into a vat of water.
This tempering process makes the edge very hard and yet preserves the
flexibility of the blade. The unique hamon or temper line is
produced by this process and is important in the aesthetic appreciation
of the sword.
For purposes of
classification, swords made between the years 800 and 1596 are referred
to as Koto ( literally “old swords”) blades. New swords are
called Shinto blades, i.e. swords made between 1596 and 1781.
Additionally, a third period of sword classification is called the
Shin Shinto period or New New sword period. (1781-1876). The
imperial edit of 1876 whereby the wearing of swords in public was
prohibited put an end to this period. Sword making declined dramatically
after this. Therefore, any swords made after 1876 are referred to as
modern swords from the Gendaito (Modern Sword) period.
As the Ashikaga
Shogunate (1338-1500) came to a close, Japan again entered into a period
of continual warfare. The Onin wars (1467-1477) marked the
beginning of one hundred years of civil strife. It is during this
period that the numerous schools and styles of swordsmanship developed.
Formerly, the term Kenjutsu was used to denote the art of
swordsmanship on the battlefield. This term implied the sword was
already drawn and ready to apply techniques. The modern term Kendo
or “the way of the sword” is derived from kenjutsu. The term
Battojutsu was also used in this period to denote swordsmanship.
Batto literally means an unsheathed sword and referred to drawing
and cutting. Around this same time, the term Iaijutsu came into
use to refer to swordsmanship. Iaijutsu means the art of quick
draw. In other words, drawing the sword quickly and cutting an enemy in
one motion is the essence of this technique. The idea was to be able to
respond to a surprise attack or an ambush. The modern term for this art
is Iaido.
The earliest documented
school of kenjutsu on record is known as the Tenshin Shoden
Katori Shinto Ryu. Its founder was Iizasa Choisai Ienao (1386-1488). The
school has been associated with the Katori Jingu (shrine) and the
Kashima Jingu and is still in existence today. It places an
emphasis on ethical swordsmanship, i.e. a morality in swordsmanship
which advocates dispatching an enemy but not indiscriminate
killing. Ienao distinguished himself as a swordsman at a young age. He
had developed great skill in both the use of the sword and spear. He
fought in numerous battles and was never defeated. Reputedly, at the age
of sixty Ienao meditated and performed daily worship and purification
rituals at the shrine for one thousand days. During that time, he
practiced his sword skills incessantly. He then received a vision of the
deity Futsu nushi no mikoto who gave him a book on martial
strategy and proclaimed that Ienao would be a great teacher of the
sword. Ienao then founded his own ryu giving it the name Tenshin
Shoden, meaning divine sanction or divinely inspired. This school was
the basis for the evolution of many other sword ryu or styles and
the development of many master swordsman, including Tsukahara Bokuden
and Kamiizumi Nobutsuna. The disciples of Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto
Ryu were sworn to secrecy with regard to the technical aspects of the
ryu. Each student had to sign a (keppan) blood oath upon
acceptance into the ryu. The curriculm of the Tenshin Shoden
Katori Shinto Ryu includes training in Kenjutsu (sword), Iaijutsu (sword
drawing), Bojutsu (staff), Sojutsu (spear), Naginata jutsu (halberd),
Shuriken jutsu (throwing blades), Jujutsu (throwing and grappling) and
Ninjutsu (espionage). Many swordsman were known to have prayed to the
Katori shrine for inspiration and achievement in their swordsmanship.
In 1546, a samurai of
the Minamoto Clan was born by the name of Hayashizaki Jinsuke - Minamoto
(1546-1621). After his father was killed in a duel, he decided to
study swordsmanship to avenge him. He devised a method of drawing
and cutting in a single stroke. At the time Hayashizaki called his
swordsmanship Batto jutsu now it is called Iaijutsu or Iaido.
Hayashizaki’s style became known as Hayashizaki Ryu. Although
Hayashizaki is given credit for this innovation, some authorities claim
that the Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu had already devised this
method one hundred years prior to Hayashizaki. Later, Hasagawa Hidenobu
(Eishin), devised a system called Eishin Ryu whereby the
sword is drawn from tate hiza (a sitting position with the right
knee raised and the left knee folded under the buttocks) as opposed to
tachi waza or standing techniques. Hasagawa, adapted Iaijutsu
techniques to the shorter katana. The next contribution to
Iaijutsu was from a style called Omori Ryu,
founded in the sixteenth century by Omori Rokurozaemon. His innovation
was the addition of performing sword-drawing techniques or kata from
seiza no bu, the Japanese formal sitting position. Today, this
style is known as Muso Jikiden Eishin Ryu Iaijutsu.
Around 1542, the
Portuguese introduced firearms to Japan. This weapon was known as the
harquebus. The warlord Oda Nobunaga successfully used the harquebus in
1575 to defeat an opposing daimyo by the name of Takeda Katsuyori
(1546-1582). Thereafter, swords changed from the long tachi
sword to a shorter lesser curved blade called the katana or
daito. The samurai then carried two swords in his belt, collectively
called daisho, a long katana for attack and defense and a
shorter wakizashi for self emoliation or ritual suicide. Along
with this change in design came about a change in technique. The
Kenjutsu swordsmanship of using an unsheathed blade or tachi on
the battlefield either as an infantryman or as a calvaryman gave way to
using the Katana or shorter blade in smaller skirmishes or individual
duels where a surprise attack often had to be dealt with. This
meant that speed in drawing the blade and flexibility in techniques
became of paramount importance. Curiously, the study of
swordsmanship seemed to increase during a period when its practical use
became less important. The samurai had more leisure time since they were
no longer involved in armed conflicts or battlefield engagements.
Therefore, their raison d’ etre became the development of
more intricate and ceremonial styles. Additionally, the concept of
Zen and spirituality became an integral part of the mastery of
swordsmanship during this period. This is evidenced by Yagyu Munenori’s
Heiho Kaden Sho (Book of Swordsmanship) and the Zen monk Takuan’s
Fudochi Shinmyo Roku (Divine Record of Immovable Wisdom), a
treatise on Zen and swordsmanship. Takuan’s writings communicate the
idea that an enlightened mind can be attained through the serious study
of swordsmanship. This “way”, i.e. michi or do,
culminates with the phrase ken zen itchi (swordsmanship and zen
are one).
The last great battle in
Japan’s military history, known as the battle of Sekigahara, was fought
in October of 1600. The result was the establishment of the
Tokugawa Shogunate and relative peace for a period of over two hundred
years. After this there were no more great battles but more often
individual duels and swordsmanship developed into hundreds of ceremonial
styles.
The Great Swordsman
Tsukahara Bokuden
(1490-1571)
During the sixteenth
century at the end of the bloody Ashikaga Shogunate, Tsukahara Bokuden
studied fencing from his father since his early childhood. His father
was also a fencing master. Bokuden who was of slender build and somewhat
short was nevertheless wiry and powerfully built. However, his rapid
progress in martial arts was attributed to natural ability and his zeal
for training.
In fact, he progressed
so quickly in his development as a swordsman that his father allowed him
to challenge other swordsman at the young age of only seventeen!
At this time, during
Japan’s feudal era, a swordsman’s reputation was measured by his success
in dueling. An accomplished swordsman of reputation would travel far and
wide throughout the country to find worthy opponents. Duels were fought
with either wooden swords (bokken) or steel swords (katana). In
any case, shinken shobu or a fight to the death was often
the case. Bokuden visited many districts throughout Japan to challenge
masters of the various schools. Despite his youth, Bokuden defeated all
of his opponents including the master swordsman of all the different
styles. In one encounter Bokuden had challenged a master fencer named
Ochiai. Ochiai was about forty years old at the time and Bokuden was
only seventeen. At the start of their match Ochiai faced his adversary
in the middle level posture known as chudan no gamae. However,
Bokuden lowered his sword almost to the ground leaving himself
completely unprotected. Ochiai and the onlookers gasped in astonishment
at the youthful Bokuden’s lack of fear in the face death. Bokuden then
leaned forward inviting total disaster at the hand of the powerful
Ochiai. In an instant it was over! Ochiai was knocked to the ground and
was lying there helpless with Bokuden’s sword at his throat. Bokuden had
attacked with such speed that his opponent never knew what had happened.
He then walked off abruptly without killing him and leaving Ochiai in
total surprise. After that engagement, Bokuden’s fame spread quickly.
This duel was the beginning of Bokuden’s career as a swordsman.
Bokuden fought in
nineteen duels in his lifetime. He also distinguished himself on the
battlefield. He fought as a retainer for the lord of Awa Province. In
thirty seven battlefield engagements, his ferocity as a warrior was such
that he killed over two hundred men and only received minor wounds.
Tsukahara Bokuden
eventually founded his own school of swordesmanship called Shinto Ryu.
The major stratagem of his system was called hitotsu tachi or
single stroke. Indeed, almost all of Bokuden’s matches were won with
only one stroke. However, Bokuden found it difficult to find a worthy
successor to his ryu. Although, he did teach the secret of
hitotsu tachi to Kitabatake Tomonori. This is the okuden
or secret principles of the style. Tomonori is also said to have
instructed Bokuden’s oldest son in hitotsu tachi. However, there
are no remaining or extant records detailing the activities of Bokuden’s
son. Although a manuscript entitled Bokuden Hyakushu
survives, Bokuden’s Shinto Ryu style and the secrets hitotsu
tachi disappeared from the pages of history after his death at the
age of eighty-one in 1571.
Several famous martial
arts anecdotes are atributable to Tsukahara Bokuden and therefore are
worth telling here. One story recounts the tale of Mutekatsu Ryu, the
art of using no sword and the other the story of the three sons. Once
while crossing a river on a ferryboat, Bokuden sat and listened to the
bragging of a samurai who boasted about how skillful he was with the
sword. By this time in his life Bokuden had fought and won so many duels
that he no longer had a propensity to show his skills with the sword.
Therefore, Bokuden simply ignored the boastful samurai. The samurai
became enraged at Bokuden’s disregard for him and challenged him to a
duel, asking him “What is your style called?”. Bokuden replied it is
called Mutekatsu Ryu [the style of swordsmanship that uses no sword].
The recalcitrant samurai replied, “That’s ridiculous. How can you defeat
another swordsman without a sword?” Bokuden replied “My sword cuts
through vanity and slices through viciousness”. The samurai then said
“You are talking nonsense! Show me some of this style called Mutekatsu
Ryu in a match then”. Bokuden said “How about this island?” The samurai
agreed. Bokuden then ordered the boatman to steer the ferry to a nearby
island which appeared suitable for a match. As the ferry approached the
island, the samurai anxiously leaped off the craft, drew his sword and
positioned himself on shore. Bokuden said to the samurai “My style is
Mutekatusu Ryu and I have no need for a sword”. At that moment, Bokuden
gave a powerful thrust with the ferryman’s pole and shoved the ferry
away leaving the dazed samurai stranded on the island. The samurai
screamed “Come back here and fight!” Bokuden said “This is my way,
Mutekatsu Ryu”.
Tsukahara Bokuden had
three sons. He was faced with the task of selecting one of them to
succeed him. In order to do this, he positioned a jar above the
shoji screen door in his room so that when the door was slid open the
jar would fall down. He called his first son and asked him to come into
the room. As the first son entered the room the jar fell and hit him in
the head. He apologized to his father. Bokuden said it was alright then
asked him to replace the jar and then dismissed him. Bokuden then asked
his second son to come into the room. As the second son entered the room
and slid the shoji open, the jar fell but before it could hit him he
drew his sword and with a lightiing fast slash smashed the jar to
pieces. Bokuden thanked him and asked him to replace the jar before
leaving. Finally, Bokuden asked his oldest son to come into the room.
The oldest son hesitated sensing something was about to happen. He then
slid the door open and quickly caught the jar before it could fall. He
placed it gently on the floor. This convinced Bokuden that his oldest
son was truly worthy of carrying on his name and teaching since he did
not draw his sword in order to deal with the jar.
(Authors note: The
Japanese recognized that the indiscriminate and wanton use of the sword
was corrupt and immoral. Therefore, they sought to preserve the higher
ideals of swordsmanship and martial virtue.)
Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645)
Japan’s Greatest
Swordsman is the title garnered by Miyamoto Mushashi. He began
training in swordsmanship at a young age. He is reputed to have had his
first duel and killed a samurai named Arima Kibei of the Shinto Ryu
school at age thirteen. Three years later he challenged Tadashima
Aikiyama of Tajima Province. He easily defeated this overconfident
samurai. These matches set the course of Musashi’s life and established
his destiny as a swordsman. In his lifetime, he fought in over sixty
duels. Musashi’s skill with the sword was so high that he fought many of
his duels with a bokken or wooden sword. When he was twenty one Musashi
headed for Kyoto and continued to follow his destiny in the capital.
This was in 1605. Immediately upon his arrival he visited the Yoshioka
family and challenged Genzaemon, the family patriarch. Genzaemon
accepted the challenge even though Musashi was an unknown entity and the
Yoshioka’s were renowned for their swordsmanship. The match was set for
five o’clock the next morning at a field on the outskirts of Kyoto.
Genzaemon brandished a wooden sword. He was accompanied by several
retainers and arrived at the appointed spot at dawn but Musashi was
nowhere to be found. Genzaemon sent some of his disciples to investigate
and see if Musashi was still at his Inn. Indeed Musashi was there but he
was asleep! This infuriated Genzaemon to no end and he had to wait two
more hours before Musashi arrived. Musashi swaggered onto the field at
high noon with a wooden sword in his hand. His appearance was calm and
collected. An enraged Genzaemon made no attempt to conceal his anger. He
immediately launched his attack against Musashi. Musashi blocked
the attacks parrying the blows. Although both received blows to the
head, Musashi landed a crushing blow to Genzaemon’s head knocking him to
the ground. He lay there unconscious and his retainers had to carry him
back to the family residence. Later, he regained consciousness to
discover his right arm was broken in many places. Genzaemon was
humiliated by the defeat. No sooner had the match ended when Denshishiro,
Genzaemon’s younger brother, challenged Musashi in order to preserve the
family honor. Although Genzaemon was the head of the family, Denshichiro
was considered to be a far better swordsman. He arrived at the appointed
place with a steel sword that was over five feet in length with the
intent of having Musashi’s blood on it. Denshichiro was filled with
confidence. He had seen Musashi’s swordsmanship first hand when his
brother was defeated and thought he could beat him. Again, Musashi was
late for the engagement but as soon as he arrived he launched a furious
attack against Denshichiro with his bokken. Musashi quickly landed a
crushing blow which killed Denshichiro on the spot!
As a result of the
defeat of both the Yoshioka brothers, Musashi’s fame grew instantly in
Kyoto. And it grew at the expense of the Yoshioka’s reputation.
Humiliated, the disciples of the Yoshioka school devised a plot to do
away with Musashi and put an end to this young upstart. The plan was to
have Matashichiro, the son of Genzaemon, challenge Musashi. Then, when
he arrived at the appointed place of the duel they would all attack him
simultaneously and kill him. Musashi arrived at the place of the duel
hours ahead of schedule and found a hiding place. From his vantage point
he watched and listened as the Yoshioka’s arrived with the young
Matashichiro. They commented how Mushashi would be late as usual and
that they would not fall for that trick again. Prepared to wait for
Musashi’s late arrival, they laid their weapons down and relaxed.
Suddenly, Musashi jumped out from his hiding place and caught them
totally off guard. He shouted ”I’ve been waiting long enough! Draw your
sword and prepare to fight!” He quickly moved toward Matashichiro and
killed him instantly by slashing across forehead. He then engaged the
other Yoshioka disciples one by one quickly dispatching them before they
could organize the ambush they had planned against him. After killing
many of them, Musashi suddenly turned and fled. This was the end of the
Yoshioka family but the beginning of Musashi’s career and quest for
worthy adversaries. He would wonder the land for eight more years
accepting challenges from other samurai.
The highlight of
Musashi’s career as a swordsman came when he met his arch rival Sasaki
Kojiro. Kojiro used a long sword that he carried slung behind his back
rather than held by the obi at the waist like other samurai.
(Interview with Komei Sekiguichi, Headmaster, Muso Jikiden Eishin Ryu
Iaijutsu. March, 1997.) His nickname for his sword was The Drying Pole.
The nickname was due to it unusual length. Kojiro was known to have cut
swallows out of the air with a single stroke of the Drying Pole. He also
developed a fighting technique known as tsubame gaeshi (swallow
counter) based on the tail movements of a swallow in flight. In their
encounter, Musashi had no sword so he carved one out of a boat oar on
the way to Ganryu Island where their duel was to take place. At their
meeting at dawn on the beach, Kojiro drew his sword while standing in
the surf and threw his saya into the water. Musashi commented ”You’ve
thrown your saya away. Because you know you won’t need it anymore. You
know you’ve already lost.” Kojiro lunged at Musashi cutting a towel off
his head with his sword. At the same time Musashi brought his wooden
sword down in a mighty blow crushing Kojiro’s skull. After this, Musashi
was considered to be invincible in combat. He had fought in over sixty
duels and numerous battlefield engagements.
Musashi was always
searching for the best way to perfect his sword skills and achieve
enlightenment, the zen ideal of spiritual oneness. In addition,
Musashi is known for his relationship with the zen monk Takuan
(1573-1645). He Pursued Yagyu Munenori for esoteric knowledge. But
the old man was usually inaccessible or simply dismissed Musashi.
Finally, when Yagyu could avoid him no more and with Musashi expecting
some lofty spiritual guidance Yagyu said, “Your problem is you are
too strong.”
Musashi is known for
founding the Niten ryu or two sword style. Although, the lineage (keizu)
or succession seems to be lost. Interestingly enough, nito or two sword
keiko is practiced in modern kendo. It is said that Musashi discovered
the two sword style by accident while in a battle. In the fury of
combat, he pulled out his short sword or wakizashi and started
fighting with it in one hand while he held his long sword or katana
in the other.
The last two years of
his life he spent in a cave writing his classic treatise on strategy
called Gorin No Sho - A Book of Five Rings. It is known to be one of the
greatest books ever to be written on strategy. (Authors note: The
authors opinion is that the other two books are The Art of War by Sun
Tzu and Principe (The Prince) by Machievelli. In the Gorin No Sho,
Musashi’s equates the strategy of warring armies to that of individual
or single combat saying that it is one in the same thing. This was the
first time this theory was ever aspired to. In fact, critics of Musashi
say that his tactics in the case of the Yoshioka’s and others were
inexcusable no matter how good his swordsmanship. Since he and his
tactics did not follow the proper etiquette and rules of decorum of the
times. However, defenders of Musashi respond by saying that the
depth of his swordsmanship and philosophy reveal that his thinking was
the match began at the moment of the challenge. Much like warfare on the
field of battle, a surprise attack is an accepted and even heralded
tactic. (See Sun Tzu, The art of War.) This is implicit in Musashi’s
statement in the Gorin No Sho, “There is no warrior in the world today
who really understands the way of strategy”. In other words, no Marquis
of Queensbury rules in battle, whether man to man or army to army. No
quarter shall be taken and none shall be given. This is not unlike
Machiavelli ‘The first thing to do is to ignore the rules since your
opponent will surely do the same.’
Musashi also wrote a
definitive treatise on the technical aspects of swordsmanship entitled
The Thirty Five Articles on the Art of Swordsmanship. This work gives
details on how to hold a sword, what footwork to use and other bits of
wisdom garnered from Musashi’s experience in actual swordplay. It is
considered the forerunner of the Gorin No Sho.
Ito Ittosai Kagehisa
(1540-1634)
Ito Ittosai Kagehisa was
the founder of the Itto Ryu school of kenjutsu. This is one of the major
schools of Japanese swordsmanship. As a youth, Ito was muscular and very
strong. From his early teens he had a desire to become a swordsman. In
the small village where he lived, he practiced incessantly and quickly
developed lighting fast movements by using a wooden sword. One day a
traveling samurai stopped at Ito’s village. He bragged of his skill in
kenjutsu so Ito fought a match with him. The boy easily defeated the
samurai. Ito was simply too fast for him and the samurai was unable to
block any of his blows. Another event dramatically influenced Ito’s life
and sword style. One evening for reasons unknown, Ito
was attacked from behind by a would be assassin. A sixth sense told Ito
to turn quickly, draw his sword and instinctively cut his opponent down
before he could finish his cut. The encounter was over in a flash and
the attacker lay dead at his feet. For several weeks afterward he
contemplated the event but he could not remember what technique he used
. Finally, it came to him that the block and cut were one and the same
and that his sword was the stronger and overcame his opponent’s. He
therefore named himself Ittosai or one-sword man. This technique became
known as Kiri Otoshi (Literally cutting drop). Later, this same
technique became known as Uchi Otoshi in modern kendo. (See This
is Kendo Today, G. Alexander & G. Warner). This information
was provided in an Interview with Hiramasa Takano, Nakanishi Itto Ryu
Kenjutsu, June 1986).
He fought all over
Japan. Ito Ittosai became the leading swordsman of his day. He
eventually moved to Kyoto and opened a dojo where he had many disciples.
However, he later went on numerous pilgrimages to find a worthy opponent
and a successor to Itto Ryu kenjutsu. He fought thirty three duels
during his wanderings and never lost one match. Unlike Musashi and
others he never sought after or tried to connect religious ideals,
morality or philosophy to his swordsmanship. On the contrary, he was
totally pragmatic in his approach to swordsmanship. And as such, his
method of selecting a successor was cruel and unusual. Typically, a
master would select a student with the highest technical skill and
initiate him into the okuden or hidden mysteries of the style.
Often a certificate was awarded in the form of a scroll or makimono,
known as a menkyo kaiden proclaiming the named recipient
as either the successor or achieved full mastery of the art. However,
Ito decided to have his two top students fight to the death in order to
determine the successor to the ryu. One student was named Zenki and the
other was named Tenzen. Both were eqally talented and powerful
swordsman. Since Ito could not make a decision between the two, it was
decided the match would be fought with real swords and the victor would
become the successor. Tenzen won the match by slashing his opponent and
killing him instantly with one stroke. Tenzen then became the head othe
Itto Ryu style. He recieved the master’s sword and he later changed his
name to Ono Taadaki and founded a branch of the style called Ono Ha Itto
Ryu. Later, disciples of the Itto Ryu (mainly Chuto Nakanishi)
were responsible for developing the shinai used in modern kendo.
(Interview with Hiromasa Takano, 10th Dan Meijin of Nakanishi Itto Ryu
Kenjutsu, June 1986, Kamakura, Japan).
Kamiizumi Nobutsuna (1508-1577)
Kamiizumi Nobutsuna, who
was originally known as Kamiizumi Hidetsuna, is considered the initiator
of the Yagyu Shinkage Ryu. This is a true hereditary
ryu whose descendants were all blood relatives and became fencing
instructors to the Shoguns. Nobutsuna had studied the Kage Ryu
style of swordsmanship under Aisu Hisatada (1452-1538), its founder.
However, he wished to develop his swordsmanship further. He convinced
his Daimyo (feudal lord) to allow him to go on a pilgrimage to
develop his sword style known as Shinkage Ryu (New Shadow
school). During his journey, he had occasion to have a match with Yagyu
Muneyoshi (1529-1606), who was the best swordsman from Yagyu Village.
During their engagement, which took place in approximately 1565,
Muneyoshi was soundly defeated by Nobutsuna. At that point, Muneyoshi
requested to become Nobutsuna’s student. Nobutsuna is known to have
developed the furoku shinai. This is a mock sword constructed
with bamboo staves inside a leather bag. It was unique to Shinkage Ryu
and substantially reduced injuries in sword matches.
One famous story about
Nobutsuna recounts how he rescued a child from the clutches of a madman.
The man threatened to kill the child. To disguise himself, Nobutsuna had
his head shaved and posed as a priest. He approached the man who was
holding the child and offered the man riceballs. As the man reached for
the riceballs, he wrestled him to the ground and rescued the child. He
then returned the child to its relieved parents.
Nobutsuna’s approach to
swordsmanship was perhaps the first to incorporate the mental aspects of
combat into a style as opposed to only techniques. (This would
eventually lead to a relationshsip which combined zen and
swordsmanship.) In this case, the mental aspects referred to the concept
of reading the opponent’s mind. ‘A mind whose intention is winning is
kage’. When facing an opponent, it is important not to reveal one’s
intentions (especially through body language, changing postures or
movement). ‘One’s mind should reflect the thoughts of the opponent ‘s
mind like water that reflects the moon (mizu no kokoro).’ The Yagyu
Shinkage Ryu developed from the Shinkage Ryu style of Nobutsuna.
Yagyu Muneyoshi
(1529-1606)
After the match between
Nobutsuna and Yagyu Muneyoshi (1529-1606), Nobutsuna noticed a talent
for swordsmanship in the yet to be developed Muneyoshi. As
Nobutsuna’s disciple, Muneyoshi progressed rapidly and eventually
received a certificate from Nobutsuna proclaiming him as the successor
to Shinkage Ryu. Muneyoshi did much to further develop the Yagyu
Shinkage Ryu style. His youngest son, Munenori (1571-1646) also showed a
talent for swordsmanship. One of Muneyoshi’s contributions to the
Yagyu style is called Muto or no sword, i.e. defending oneself
against a sword while having no sword. These are techniques such as
clasping an opponent’s sword with the palms of the hands or manipulating
an opponent’s sword by grabbing the hilt or tsuka. Obviously,
these are techniques which require great skill. Incidently, the Shinkage
Ryu uses a unique form of shinai that is made of bamboo strips
completely covered with leather.
As Muneyoshi’s fame as a
swordsman grew, a chance meeting changed the destiny of the Yagyu clan
forever. In 1594, having heard of Muneyoshi’s skill, the Shogun Tokugawa
Ieyasu requested a meeting with Muneyoshi at his villa (imperial palace)
in Kyoto. The Shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, recieved Muneyoshi, who was
sixty-six at the time and was accompanied by his son Munenori who was
then twenty-four. The Shogun was so impressed with their demonstration
of muto that he decided to try it himself. As Ieyasu attacked
Muneyoshi with a wooden sword, Muneyoshi adeptly yanked it from his
grasp sending the sword flying through the air. At that point, the
Shogun requested that Muneyoshi become his personal swordsmanship
instructor. Muneyoshi said that he was too old but requested that his
son, Munenori, hold the position and the Shogun agreed.
Munenori (1571-1646)
The Yagyu had a special
relationship with the ninja of Iga and Koga Provinces. The
ninja acted as espionage agents and helped gather intelligence
information which proved to be valuable in winning the battle of
Sekigahara in October 1600, the deciding battle which unified the
country. Additionally, they used ninja as guerrilla fighters
against Ishida Mitsunari’s troops, the opposing force in the battle of
Sekigahara. Munenori with the help of the priest Takuan (1573-1645)
combined many aspects of zen with swordsmanship. This is
reflected in Munenori’s writings known as Heiho Kaden Sho. An
important tactic in Yagyu Shinkage Ryu was to perceive the opponent’s
movements before he made them. The Heiho Kaden Sho (Book of
Swordsmansip) written by Munenori explains how an opponent will betray
his intentions by preceding an attack with small movements of his
shoulders or arms.
Yagyu Jubei
Mitsuyoshi (1607-1651)
Yagyu Jubei Mitsuyoshi,
Munenori’s eldest son, distinguished the reputation of the Yagyu name
even further. At the Shoguns request, he roamed the countryside
disguised as a ronin (masterless samurai) in order to engage in
espionage. He developed techniques which emphasized go no sen,
i.e. waiting for the opponent to attack and then take advantage of his
movement which left him unprotected. Reportedly, Mitsuyoshi only
had one eye. Legend tells us that he had it poked out in a fencing match
using bokken. He wrote a treatise on swordsmanship called Tsuki no
Sho (Notes on the Moon). Mitsuyoshi suddenly died at the early age
of forty four while staying in the village of Yagyu. Supposedly, he was
poisoned. Mitsuyoshi’s son, Munefuyu continued the Yagyu family
tradition of serving the Shogun as fencing instructor. Although he was
an excellent swordsman, he did not have the talent of his predecessors.
The Yagyu Shinkage Ryu line produced three master swordsman, Yagyu
Muneyoshi; Yagyu Munenori and Yagyu Mitsuyoshi. Its tradition has been
carried on to the present day.
Yamaoka Tesshu
(1836-1888)
Yamaoka Tesshu is often
referred to as the last great swordsman of Japan. In an age when the
sword was completely replaced as a weapon of war and a symbol of
chivalry, he was totally dedicated to his mastery of the sword. He
studied the Itto Ryu style of kenjutsu and was a practitioner of zen.
In fact, he completed an entire course in Zen and was considered
enlightened. He once gave instruction in swordsmanship to the Emperor
Meiji. During their match, Tesshu threw the Emperor to the floor using
ashi garami (leg entanglement). The Emperor’s attendants were
shocked that he threw the Emperor to the floor so violently. When they
asked him about it saying “How dare you throw his majesty?” He said “Why
not! It is part of what I was asked to teach him. “If the Emperor does
not know what it is like to be thrown, he will not know fencing”.
Yamaoka Tesshu lived
during a time of transition in Japan. The Shogunate was disolving and
giving way to imperial power. He deeply regretted the decline of
bushido, the way of the samurai. However, he was known for his
efforts to prevent war between imperial forces and the Shogun’s army.
Kendo:
Japanese Swordsmanship
Kendo is “The Way of
Japanese Swordsmanship”. Modern kendo is both an art and an exciting
sport. Its roots lie deep in Japanese culture and the spirit of the
samurai warrior, known as bushi. Modern kendo is a unique blend
of sport and spiritual discipline based on classical kenjutsu. Kendo
originated a thousand years ago from kenjutsu an earlier ancestral form
of swordsmanship. Kenjutsu is the art of using real swords or “live
blades” on the battlefield and traces its origins back to Japan’s
ancient martial culture. In fact, history records competitive bouts with
swords were held as early as the Heian Period (794-1185).
In the late 1700’s, the
shinai or bamboo sword was developed along with the protective equipment
used in modern Kendo called dogu. Dogu literally means equipment of “the
way”. A branch of the Itto Ryu kenjutsu style developed this equipment.
This made it possible for a samurai to be able to practice using full
force blows or cuts to his opponent without fear of injuring his
training partner. Although this “new system” met with criticism from
some of the members of the Itto Ryu style. In fact, some of them left
the Ryu or clan because of the use of dogu. Prior to the use of the
bamboo shinai and armour, practice was restricted to kata or forms
repetition or the dangerous use of real swords. A bokken or solid wooden
sword was sometimes used but this proved to be dangerous as well. These
were used so that the feeling of applying techniques with a cutting edge
could be maintained. In fact, Yagyu Jubei, the grandson of a famous
swordsman had his eye poked out with a bokken during practice. The
bokken is used in modern kendo for kata practice. The bokken is a solid
wooden sword made out of hardwood to resemble the shape, balance and
weight of a real sword. As such, it is a dangerous weapon even though it
does not have a ‘shinken’ or sharp edge. After all, Musashi Miyamoto,
Japan’s greatest swordsman, killed many of his opponent’s with a bokken.
In fact, Mushashi prevailed over his archrival, Sasaki Kojiro, using
only a bokken.
The innovation of the
shinai and dogu made the practice of kendo even more popular. Today this
is sometimes referred to as shinai kendo and the practice of kata as
koryu or kata kendo. The Japanese government made kendo a part of
compulsory education in schools in 1871. In 1909, the first college
kendo federation was formed and in 1928 the All Japan Kendo Federation
was formed. In 1952 the All Japan Kendo Federation was revitalized and
in 1957 the Japanese Ministry of Education officially included a totally
sport oriented form of kendo in its school physical education programs.
Since then kendo has spread worldwide and has become international in
scope. In 1971 the International Kendo Federation was created as the
world governing body of kendo. About seven million people practice kendo
in Japan and about one million people practice kendo outside of Japan.
Realism in training is a
feature of all true Japanese martial arts. Therefore, there is a
necessity to wear armor to protect oneself from full force blows.
This armor or equipment, collectively known as dogu, consists of the
men, kote, do, tare and shinai. The men is a form of headgear
which incorporates a metal face mask. The kote are padded gloves
or gauntlets which protect the hand and wrist. The do is a leather
covered chest protector and the tare is a padded waistband which
covers the hips. A hand
towel known as a tenugui is worn under the men to keep sweat out of the
eyes during practice. The custom in kendo is give these as gifts or
mementos after a practice. The shinai is the practice sword used
in modern Kendo. It simulates a real sword with a cutting edge and
is made from four strips of bamboo and a leather tip and handle held
together by a string. The string runs down the back of the shinai and
signifies the dull side of the blade. The split bamboo construction
allows the force of the blows to be absorbed by the shinai or dissipate
upon contact. If a blow misses the armor and strikes an unprotected part
of the body, the leg for instance, because of the construction of the
shinai only superficial bruising will occur.
For purposes of sport
the number of techniques in kendo is limited. There are eight striking
points in Kendo used for scoring. Seven of these simulate cuts and
one a thrust. Kendo emphasizes slashing as opposed to European style
fencing which emphasizes thrusting. The striking points to the head are
men, the top center of the face mask, Hidari Men, Left side of the face
mask, Migi men, right side of the face mask. Kote is a strike to
the forearm just above the wrist and Hidari kote is a strike to the left
forearm. Hidari kote is only permissible when the opponent’s left
hand is raised above the shoulder. Do is a strike which
simulates a cross cut to the body. Migi do strikes the right side
of the chest protector while Hidari do strikes the left side. Usually
Hidari Do is prohibited to keep the match a little cleaner. Tsuki is a
thrust to the throat flap which is attached to the men headgear.
When a strike is made, a Kendoka calls out the point by yelling Men,
Kote, Do or Tsuki. This is a form of Kiai or shout releasing
spiritual energy. Men is the favored technique. The idea is to catch the
opponent totally off guard or unaware with a perfect men technique. This
relates to the concept of ken zen itchi, the sword and the
mind are one and ki ken tai no ichi, the sword, the body and mind
are one. It implies the perfect stroke or cut involves the sword, the
body and the mind all coordinated together as elements of one technique.
Therefore, the perfect cut must strike the target: Men; Kote; Do or
Tsuki with sufficient force at the same time the weight of the body
comes down on the lead foot while calling out the name of the strike.
“If you don’t call it, it doesn’t count!” Calling out the name of the
strike loudly Men, Kote or Do also functions as a Kiai. Also, the lead
foot should stomp the floor with a loud stamping sound at the same time
as the impact of the technique. This is referred to as fumikomi
and emphasizes that the bodyweight has been dropped at the same time the
technique was executed.
Kendo training
traditionally requires self-discipline and intense exhaustive physical
and mental effort. Needless to say, this builds tremendous
stamina. It is reported that a certain Ryu required a swordsman to
fight “six hundred” matches in order to achieve only a middle level rank
in Kendo. It is necessary to train to the point of complete
exhaustion in order to improve one’s technique. This develops Ki
or internal energy which is very important and stressed in Kendo.
The development of Ki allows a superior swordsman to use “inner
strength” rather than rely on sheer muscular or somatic force. A
Kendoka who relies on muscular force alone soon becomes exhausted and
can no longer adequately defend himself. You have to experience
this in order to become a believer.
The fighting strategy of
modern Kendo lies in speed and the ability to attack the opponent.
Mastery is achieved through repetition training in the basic strikes of
Kendo. Also, emphasis is placed on footwork. Footwork
training called Suburi demands that the Shinai and body be moved in a
coordinated manner in order to achieve speed and accuracy. Good
sight is also necessary in Kendo. This is necessary in order to
detect a flaw in the opponent’s defense. This in itself develops a
certain spiritual or intuitive awareness.
There are ten kata utilized in modern Kendo training. Although Kata is not the foremost training method used in Kendo. These Kata consist of two-man sets which use techniques of kenjutsu that have actually been tested in combat with real swords. These two-man kata are called Nihon Kendo Kata and are performed with the bokken or a sword. The Nihon Kendo Kata were formulated as early as 1912 at the Dai Nippon Butokukai (The Greater Japan Martial Virtues Association). These kata make use of the ancient techniques of kenjutsu as adapted to modern kendo, i.e. kiri age (cutting from ground to sky) has been eliminated. In addition to these kata, there are a set of solo exercises or forms called seitei gata. These are called iaido kata which emphasize sword drawing and cutting. These are sword kata derived from Iaijutsu techniques. In 1967, the All Japan Kendo Federation (Zen Nippon Kendo Renmei - ZNKR) formed a committee that developed the first seven of these kata so that kendoka would not lose the feeling of working with a real sword as opposed to practicing with only a bokken or shinai. The committee was made up of members from the Muso Jikiden Eishin Ryu, Muso Shinden Ryu and Hoki Ryu. In 1977, a second committee was formed which included the previously mentioned Ryu and the Tamiya Ryu. At that time, the remaining three kata were added to complete a set of ten kata known as the seitei gata. Some critics of the seitei gata have stated that many of the hundreds of traditional Iaijutsu ryu did not contribute to the design of the seitei gata. However, many Ryu now use the seitei gata as a point of beginnin